Environmentally Friendly Concrete Alternative

Environmentally Friendly Concrete Alternative Throughout history, the use of concrete as a building material has contributed significantly to the built environment. Enduring examples of various forms of concrete can be found as far back as the early Egyptian civilisation. Significant building remnants still exist from the Roman civilization, which used concretes made from naturally occurring volcanic ash pozzolans, mixed with water, sand and stone. Now concrete is being used in the construction of durable bridges, roads, water supply, hospitals, churches, houses and commercial buildings, to give people a social foundation, a thriving economy, and serviceable facilities for many years. In the modern era, the properties of concrete were refined in the late 1800s, with the introduction of a patented manufacturing process for portland cement. While it has ancient roots, concrete, as we know it today, is a modern and highly advanced building material. In the last 150 years, concrete has become one of the most widely used building mat erials on earth. Problem Statement Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world. However, the  production of portland cement, an essential material in concrete, leads to the release of significant amount of CO2, a greenhouse gas. One ton of portland cement clinker production is said to creates approximately one ton of CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Environmental issues are playing an important role in the sustainable development of the cement and concrete industry. For example, if we run out of limestone, as it is predicted to happen in some places, then we cannot produce portland cement; and, therefore, we cannot produce concrete and all the employment associated with the concrete industry goes out-of-business. A sustainable concrete structure is one that is constructed so that the total environmental impact during its entire life cycle is minimal. Concrete is a sustainable material because it has a very low inherent energy requirement and is produced to order as needed with very lit tle waste. It is made from some of the most plentiful resources on earth and has a very high thermal mass. It can be made with recycled materials and is completely recyclable. Sustainable design and construction of structures have a small impact on the environment. Use of green materials embodies low energy costs. Their use must have high durability and low maintenance leading to sustainable construction materials. High performance cements and concrete can reduce the amount of cementitious materials and total volume of concrete required. Concrete must keep evolving to satisfy the increasing demands of all its users. Reuse of post-consumer wastes and industrial byproducts in concrete is necessary to produce even greener concrete. Greener concrete also improves air quality, minimizes solid wastes, and leads to sustainable cement and concrete industry. What is Sustainable Concrete? Concrete is a very environmentally friendly material. Concrete has been used for over 2,000 years. Concrete is best known for its long-lasting and dependable nature. However, additional ways that concrete contributes to social progress, economic growth, and environmental protection are often overlooked. Concrete structures are superior in energy performance. They provide flexibility in design as well as affordability, and are environmentally more responsible than steel or aluminum structures. Entire geographical regions are running out of limestone resource to produce cement. Major metropolitan areas are running out of sources of aggregates for making concrete. Sustainability requires that engineers consider a buildings lifecycle cost extended over the useful lifetime. This includes the building construction, maintenance, demolition, and recycling [ACI 2004]. A sustainable concrete structure is one that is constructed so that the total societal impact during its entire life cycle, including during its use, is minimal. Designing for sustainability means accounting in the design and also the short-term and long-term consequences of the societal impact. Therefore, durability is the key issue. New generation of admixtures/additives are needed to improve durability. To build in a sustainable manner and conduct scheduled appropriate building maintenance are the keys that represent the new construction ideology of this generation. In particular, to build in a sustainable manner means to focus attention on physical, environmental, and technological resources, problems related to human health, energy conservation of new and existing buildings, and control of construction technologies and methods. Environmental Issues with Concrete The production of portland cement releases CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. Total CO2 emissions worldwide were 21 billion tons in 2002, Table 1. Environmental issues associated with the CO2 emissions from the production of portland cement, energy demand (six-million BTU of energy needed per ton of cement production), resource conservation consideration, and economic impact due to the high cost of portland cement manufacturing plants demand that supplementary cementing materials in general and fly ash in particular be used in increasing quantities to replace portland cement in concrete [Malhotra 1997, 2004]. Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverized coal in thermal power plants. The dust collection system removes the fly ash, as a fine particulate residue from the combustion gases before they are discharged in the atmosphere. For each ton of portland cement clinker, 3 to 20 lbs. of NOx are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, the worldwide cement clinker production was approximately 1.6 billion tons [Malhotra 2004]. Longer lasting concrete structures reduce energy needs for maintenance and reconstruction. Concr ete is a locally available material; therefore, transportation cost to the project site is reduced. Light colored concrete walls reduce interior lighting requirements. Permeable concrete pavement and interlocking concrete pavers can be used to reduce runoff and allow water to return to the water table. Therefore, concrete is, in many ways, environmentally friendly material. As good engineers, we must use more of it [Malhotra 2004]. In view of the energy and greenhouse gas emission concerns in the manufacturing of Portland cement, it is imperative that either new environmentally friendly cement-manufacturing technologies be developed or substitute materials be found to replace a major part of the portland cement for use in the concrete industry [Malhotra 2004]. Energy consumption is the biggest environmental concern with cement and concrete production. Cement production is one of the most energy intensive of all industrial manufacturing processes. Including direct fuel use for mining and transporting raw materials, cement production takes about six million BTUs for every ton of cement. The industrys heavy reliance on coal leads to especially high emission levels of CO2, nitrous oxide, and sulphur, among other pollutants. A sizeable portion of the electricity used is also generated from coal. What types of materials are being used to make sustainable concrete? Coal combustion products (CCPs) It is important to develop recycling technology for high-volume applications of coal combustion products (CCPs) generated by using both conventional and clean-coal technologies. Many different types of CCPs are produced; for example, fly ash, bottom ash, cyclone-boiler slag, and clean coal ash. In general some of these CCPs can be used as a supplementary cementitious materials and the use of portland cement, therefore, can be reduced. The production of CCPs in USA is about 120 million tons per year in 2004. Cyclone-boiler slag is 100% recycled. Overall recycling rate of all CCPs is about 40%. Todays use of other pozzolans, such as rice-husk ash, wood ash, GGBFS, silica fume, and other similar pozzolanic materials such as volcanic ash, natural pozzolans, diatomite (diatomaceous earth), calcined clay/shale, metakaolin, very fine clean-coal ash (microash), limestone powder, and fine glass can reduce the use of manufactured portland cement, and make concrete more durable, as well as reduce GHG emissions. Chemical composition of ASTM Type I portland cement and selected pozzolans is given in Table 2. Recycled- Aggregate Concrete Recycled-aggregate concrete (RAC) for structural use can be prepared by completely substituting natural aggregate, in order to achieve the same strength class as the reference concrete, manufactured by using only natural aggregates. This is obviously a frustration, since a large stream of recycled aggregates to allow for full substitution of natural aggregates is not available. However, it is useful to prove that to manufacture structural concrete by partly substituting natural with recycled aggregates by up to fifty percent is indeed feasible. In any case, if the adoption of a very low water to cement ratio implies unsustainably high amounts of cement in the concrete mixture, recycled-aggregate concrete may also be manufactured by using a water-reducing admixture in order to lower both water and cement dosage, or even by adding fly ash as a partial fine aggregate replacement and by using a super plasticizer to achieve the required workability. High-volume fly ash recycled aggregate concrete (HVFA-RAC) can be manufactured with a water to cement ratio of 0.60, by simultaneously adding to the mixture as much fly ash as cement, and substituting the fine aggregate fraction. Thus, water to cementitious material ratio of 0.30 is obtained enabling the concrete to reach the required strength class (Table 3). This procedure is essential for designing an environmentally-friendly concrete. All the concretes can be prepared maintaining the same fluid consistency by proper addition of an appropriate class of a super plasticizer. SUSTAINABLE CONCRETE SOLUTIONS Concrete is a strong, durable, low environmental impact, building material. It is the cornerstone for building construction and infrastructure that can put future generations on the road towards a sustainable future [Cement Association of Canada 2004]. Benefits of concrete construction are many, for example [Cement Association of Canada 2004]: concrete buildings reduce maintenance and energy use; concrete highways reduce fuel consumed by heavily loaded trucks; insulating concrete homes reduce energy usage by 40% or more; fly ash, cement kiln dust, or cement-based solidification/stabilization and in-situ treatment of waste for brownfield redevelopment; and, agriculture waste containment reduces odor and prevents groundwater contamination. The concrete industry must show leadership and resolve, and make contribution to the sustainable development of the industry in the 21 century by adopting new technologies to reduce emission of the greenhousegases, and thus contribute towards mee ting the goals and objectives set at the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. The manufacturing of portland cement is one such industry [Malhotra 2004]. PORTLAND CEMENT Portland cement is not environmentally very friendly material. As good engineers, we must reduce its use in concrete [Malhotra 2004]; and, we must use more blended cements, especially with chemical admixtures. Clinker production is the most energy-intensive stage in cement production, accounting for over 90% of total energy use, and virtually all of the fuel use. Processing of raw materials in large kilns produces portland cement clinker. These kiln systems evaporate the inherent water in the raw materials blended to manufacture the clinker, calcine the carbonate constituents (calcinations), and form cement minerals (clinkerization) [Worrell Galtisky 2004]. Blended cements The production of blended cements involves the intergrinding of clinker with one or more additives; e.g., fly ash,bnb granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume, volcanic ash, in various proportions. The use of blended cements is a particularly attractive efficiency option since the intergrinding of clinker with other additives not only allows for a reduction in the energy used (and reduced GHG emissions) in clinker production, but also directly corresponds to a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions in calcinations as well. Blended cement has been used for many decades around the world [Worrell Galtisky 2004]. Concrete and the use of blended cements Although it is most common to make use of supplementary cementing materials (SCM) in the replacement of cement in the concrete mixture, blended cement is produced at the grinding stage of cement production where fly ash, blast furnace slag, or silica fume are added to the cement itself. The advantages include expanded production capacity, reduced CO2 emissions, reduced fuel consumption and close monitoring of the quality of SCMs [Cement Association of Canada 2004]. Kyoto Protocol (UN Pact of 1997, requires to reduce GHGs, including CO2). It is now ratified. USA has not ratified it. The Russian Government approval allowed it to come into force worldwide. By 2012, emissions must be cut below 1990 levels (in Japan by 6.0 + 7.6 = 13.6% by 2012) [The Daily Yomiuri 2004]. In Japan (Per) householdà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦5,000 yen green tax per year is planned (starting April 2005). This includes 3,600 yen in tax per ton of carbon. The revenue would be used to implement policies to achieve the requir ements of Kyoto Protocol. A survey released (on Oct. 21, 2004) showed that 61% of those polled are in favor of the environmental tax. [The Japan Times 2004]. Rate of CO2 emission and global warming is shown in Figure 1. In last 2 yrs. CO2 has increased at a higher rate than expected [Corinaldesi Moriconi 2004b]. Foundry by-products Foundry by-products include foundry sand, core butts, abrasives, and cupola slag. Cores are used in making desired cavity/shapes in a sand mold in which molten metal is cast/poured. Cores are primarily composed of silica sand with small percentages of either organic or inorganic binders. Conclusions The most important conclusion drawn appears to be that the compressive strength of the recycled aggregate concrete can be improved to equal or even exceed that of natural-aggregate concrete by adding fly ash to the mixture as a fine aggregate replacement. In this way, a given strength class value, as required for a wide range of common uses, can be reached through both natural-aggregate concrete and recycled-aggregate concrete with fly ash, by adequately decreasing the water to cement ratio with the aid of a superplasticizer in order to maintain the workability. Concrete manufactured by using recycled aggregate and fly ash shows no deleterious effect on the durability of reinforced concrete, with some improvement for some cases. From an economical point of view, if only the traditional costs are taken into account, recycledaggregate concrete with fly ash could be less attractive than natural-aggregate concrete. However, if the eco-balanced costs are considered, the exact opposite would be valid. Moreover, the fine fraction with particle size up to 5 mm, when reused as aggregate for mortars, allowed excellent bond strengths between mortar and bricks, in spite of a lower mechanical performance of the mortar itself. Also the masonry rubble can be profitably treated and reused for preparing mortars. Even for the fine fraction produced during the recycling process, that is the concrete-rubble powder, an excellent reuse was found, as filler in self-compacting concrete. The attempt to improve the quality of the recycled aggregates for new concretes by reusing in different ways the most detrimental fractions, i.e., the material coming from masonry rubble and the finest recycled materials, allowed to achieve surprising and unexpected performances for mortars and selfcompacting concretes. Other industrial wastes, such as GRP waste powder, can prove useful to be re-used in cementitious products, by improving some durability aspects. The concrete industry will be called upon to serve the two pressing needs of human society; namely, protection of the environment and meeting the infrastructural requirement for increasing industrialization and urbanization of the world. Also due to large size, the concrete industry is unquestionably the ideal medium for the economic and safe use of millions of tons of industrial byproducts such as fly ash and slag due to their highly pozzolanic and cementitious properties. It is obvious that large-scale cement replacement (60 70 %) in concrete with these industrial by-products will be advantageous from the standpoint of cost economy, energy efficiency, durability, and overall ecological profile of concrete. Therefore, in the future, the use of by-product supplementary cementing materials ought to be made mandatory [Malhotra 2004].

Desirees Baby - A Short Story by Kate Chopin :: Kate Chopins Desirees Baby

"Desiree's Baby'', is about a young lady who was nameless and abandoned as a child. Desiree was a child who's future was uncertain until she was found by the Valmonde family. During this time of the Valmondes' life, they had not been blessed with any children, therefore they took in Desiree and raised her as their own child. From the very beginning of the story, I knew that this would be something that I would enjoy. The Valmonde's taking in this child as their own, is two blessing in one. Desiree gets the love and support that she needs from parents; and the Valmonde's get a child that they are now able to give love and support to. Growing up to become a a beautiful lady, she attracted the attention of Armand Aubigny Armand was a neighboring plantation owner and bearer of one of the finest names in Louisiana. If I were in Desiree's shoies, I would have thought I was something by dating one of the well-known plantation owners. By this time, Desiree's father was reminding Armand that they didn't know were heritage, but still he insisting on persuing her anyway. Which by the way, that sometimes happens when you find someone that you really like. Regardless of what anyone has to say or tell you about that person you are going to still want to be with them. As time went on, Desiree and Ahmand became united in holy matrimony. To their union a child was born. Now, the problem begins. It wasn't until there was a question about the baby's race, the hardship on the plantation began. Only because her identity resembled that of a slave. While now, she would have to leave the plantation, only because of the outer appreance of the child. When all along, I feel that Ahmand knew that he was the cause of the child African decendency.

The Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian

The Historical Context of The Bhagavad Gita and Its Relation to Indian Religious Doctrines The Bhagavad Gita is perhaps the most famous, and definitely the most widely-read, ethical text of ancient India. As an episode in India's great epic, the Mahabharata, The Bhagavad Gita now ranks as one of the three principal texts that define and capture the essence of Hinduism; the other two being the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras. Though this work contains much theology, its kernel is ethical and its teaching is set in the context of an ethical problem. The teaching of The Bhagavad Gita is summed up in the maxim "your business is with the deed and not with the result." When Arjuna, the third son of king Pandu (dynasty name: Pandavas) is about to begin a war that became inevitable once his one hundred cousins belonging to the Kaurava dynasty refused to return even a few villages to the five Pandava brothers after their return from enforced exile, he looks at his cousins, uncles and friends standing on the other side of the battlefield and wonders whether he is morally prepared a nd justified in killing his blood relations even though it was he, along with his brother Bhima, who had courageously prepared for this war. Arjuna is certain that he would be victorious in this war since he has Lord Krishna (one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu) on his side. He is able to visualize the scene at the end of the battle; the dead bodies of his cousins lying on the battlefield, motionless and incapable of vengeance. It is then that he looses his nerve to fight. The necessity for the arose because the one hundred cousins of the Panadavas refused to return the kingdom to the Pandavas as they had originally promised. The eldest of the Pandav brot... ...e first English translation of the Gita was published. All religious texts of ancient India were written in Sanskrit. In November 1784, the first direct translation of a Sanskrit work into English was completed by Charles Wilkins. The book that was translated was The Bhagavad Gita. Friedreich Max Mueller (1823-1900), the German Sanskritist who spent most of his working life as Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford University, served as the chief editor of the Sacred Books of the East. (Oxford University Press). The Gita was included in this famous collection. Since then, the Gita has become one of the most widely-read texts of the world. True, there are unexplained contradictions and paradoxes in this brief book, but its wide-ranging implications based on the two ancient Darshans of India and its allegorical meanings are still being examined and reinterpreted.

Delias Marriage in Hurstons Sweat Essays -- Zora Neale Hurston

In Zora Neale Hurston’s short story, Sweat, Delia finds herself stuck in an unbearable marriage. Her husband, Sykes, mistreats her, leaves all work to her, and is unfaithful. After being married to Sykes for 15 years, Delia has lost all hope in the marriage. The countless beatings and painful acts of Sykes have brought her over the edge. She is forced to go against her strict religious beliefs because of the life in which she has been leading since her matrimony to her husband. One passage that sums up many factions of Delia and Sykes’s relationship is as follows: â€Å"She lay awake, gazing upon the debris that cluttered their matrimonial trail. Not an image left standing along the way. Anything like flowers had long ago been drowned in the salty stream that had been pressed from her heart. Her tears, her sweat, her blood. She had brought love to the union and he had brought a longing after the flesh. Two months after the wedding, he had given her the first brutal beating. She had the memory of his numerous trips to Orlando with all of his wages when he had returned to her penniless, even before the first year had passed. She was young and soft then, but now she thought of her knotty, muscles limbs, her harsh knuckly hands, and drew herself up into an unhappy little ball in the middle of the big feather bed. Too late now to hope for love, even if it were not Bertha it would be someone else. This case differed from the others only in that she was bolder than the others. Too late for everything except her little home. She had built it for her old days, and planted one by one the trees and flowers there. It was lovely to her, lovely.† (Hurston 680).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This scene occurs when Delia is lying on her bed, thinking of what had just previously happened. Sykes had gotten home, and as usual, a fight erupted between the two former lovers. The difference about this confrontation though, was that Sykes did not strike Delia, as what usually happens. Delia picked up a metal skillet and threatened to defend herself from her husband as he cowed in fear of being hit. This new approach from Delia, involving a new intimidation, shows how her unnecessary sweat and hard work had gotten to be too much. The act of seizing a skillet from the stove to protect herself symbolizes how in essence, Delia is trying to defend her home. The skillet is a fragment of the house, and as she st... ...h will occur that night. The circumstances of any person’s life will eventually decide the outcome. Negative conditions can be bearable enough that there will not be a thorough change in one’s life, but worse situations can have different effects. Sometimes a person is forced to make a change in the way they live their life in order to make it tolerable. In Sweat, by Zora Neale Hurston, Delia’s attitude toward her bad marriage changes because of her lack of endurance for her life. The fire behind her eyes could no longer be restricted by Sykes’ mistreatments and unfaithfulness. Delia’s water had boiled over and what resulted was a flame of another kind. She confronted all that Sykes was with a newly found indifference, and would take a stand against his wrongdoings. The question in which the conclusion of the story asks has to deal with Delia’s devotion to God and her religion. Is it OK to let him die? One may answer the question either way, but essentially, the resp onse will be found in the eye of the beholder. Works Cited Hurston, Zora Neale. "Sweat." The Story and Its Writer An Introduction to Short Fiction. Ed. Ann Charters. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999. 678-687.

To Ban or Not to Ban?

Mariah Smyth English II Honors Holzberger 11 May 2012 To Ban or Not to Ban? Give me literature or give me death. Why stand we here idle? What is that gentlemen wish? What would they want? Is it text so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of the chains of censorship? Forbid it, almighty god! I know not what course others might take; but ask me give me literature, or give me death! (Parody of â€Å"Speech to the Virginia Convention†). For centuries people have been reading books to gain knowledge and to be entertained (Introductory Assignment Sheet).Kurt Vonnegut did a magnificent job writing a piece threaded with compassion of a tragic historical event leaving behind a conspicuous moral statement. Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut should not be removed from shelves, because the book is eye-opening especially for young adults who are soon to enter the real world and become our future. Certain groups decided to challenge harsh reality of the truth written into an educational and humorous read. A school’s board article stated, â€Å"We’re not making a judgment call on if the book is good or bad, we just want to make sure it’s age appropriate† (School board removes 2 books from school).This is NOT an arguable reason considering Billy Pilgrim, the main character in Slaughterhouse-Five, went into war at the age of sixteen. The book states the facts. Vonnegut argues that war is inhumane. This IS arguable and negotiable; war is deceitful and tears apart homes. Educational supervisors are trying to ban a book that is making children aware of the gruesome effects of war, and warnings to create a more diplomatic world. Vonnegut served in World War II first handedly and wanted to stress the anxiety war puts upon people.While being a veteran, â€Å"Vonnegut once knew the comfort of such a community and home life, and knew also the feeling of having them wrenched away† (Twentieth-Century Writers 1950-1990). His goal in Slaughterhouse-Five was to create a third world era where â€Å"Tralfamadorians,† or aliens, known as the enemy took over and demonstrated manifestations of the immaturity of human species for creating war. Vonnegut’s Dresden bombing in literature explained that, â€Å"In the aftermath they were assigned the task of carrying out dead bodies from the ruins.The descriptions of the removal of the bodies are particularly gruesome reminders of the insanity† (Dresden bombing in literature). Vonnegut wanted a moral vision of war cutting social community. After being kidnapped by the extraterrestrial Tralfamadorians he attempted to find peace and learned that the only secret of life is to live only in the happy moments. His embellished comparison to overcoming a tragedy was an honorable mention for young readers. It helps them realize war is unacceptable along with everything that comes with it.In addition, Vonnegut wanted someone to, â€Å"tell him the secret so he can take it back to Earth and save us all: How can a planet live at peace? † (Kurt Vonnegut). Vonnegut stated this in Slaughterhouse-Five meaning war should not be believed to take place on Earth. When coming back from his third world era, â€Å"war,† he thought it would be different, but everything came back with him. Therefore, when young adults read Slaughterhouse-Five they will fathom the idea wars resolve nothing and to create world peace for our future.Also respect everyone who has and is serving in war learning the truth and unpleasant effects. However, you may argue war is still an issue today and the book is not age appropriate considering it is anti-war and putting horrid images in young reader’s mind. Overall, the book is reality and history. You cannot feed your children lies and candy coat everything. If Billy Pilgrim was capable of entering war at the age of sixteen, young adults are capable of facing the truth and forming opinions for themse lves.Vonnegut wanted to leave behind a message, â€Å"God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change courage to change the things I can and wisdom to always tell me the difference† (Kurt Vonnegut). We cannot change what has already happened, but we can prevent it from happening again. Slaughterhouse-Five sets a good example and should not be banned. Works Cited Quinn, Edward. â€Å"Dresden bombing in literature. † History in Literature: A Reader's Guide to 20th Century History and the Literature it Inspired. New York: Facts On File, Inc. , 2008. Modern World History Online. Facts On File, Inc. ttp://www. fofweb. com/activelink2. asp? ItemID=WE53;iPin=HIL056;SingleRecord=True  (accessed April  30,  2012). Verde, Tom. â€Å"Vonnegut, Kurt. † Twentieth-Century Writers 1950–1990, American Profiles. New York: Facts On File, Inc. , 1996. (Updated 2007. ) American History Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www. fofweb. com/activelink2. asp? ItemID=WE52;iPin=ffap20w20005;SingleRecord=True  (accessed April  30,  2012). Oakes, Elizabeth H. â€Å"Vonnegut, Kurt. † American Writers, American Biographies. New York: Facts On File, Inc. , 2004. (Updated 2007. ) American History Online.Facts On File, Inc. http://www. fofweb. com/activelink2. asp? ItemID=WE52;iPin=AW237;SingleRecord=True  (accessed April  30,  2012). â€Å"School board removes 2 books from school†. Copyright 2011 United Press International, Inc. (UPI). U. S. Government Online. Facts On File, Inc. http://www. fofweb. com/activelink2. asp? p=details. aspx;ItemID=WE36;iPin=UPI-1-20110726-160202-bc-us-bookban-crn;SingleRecord=True  (accessed April  30,  2012). â€Å"Freedom Readers Assignment Sheet. † 4 May 2010. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell, 19991. Print. |   |

A Story of Three Progressives

A Story of Three Progressives Three classic theorists, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber have discussed and analyzed the complexity of modernization. Modernization is a broad concept that refers to major social changes which occur when a pre-industrial society develops economically and the workplace shifts from the home to the factory (industrialization), people move from farms into cities where jobs are available (urbanization), and large-scale formal organizations emerge (bureaucratization). Each of these sociologists have developed major theoretical and methodological statements on the topic of modernization and many of their theories that were made a century or two ago still hold true today. Beginning with Karl Marx, an extreme revolutionary of the 19th century, he argued that modernization is an ascendancy of industrial capitalism. His idea of modernity was shaped by three developments in history: the French revolutions of 1789 and 1848, the industrial and agricultural revolutions in Britain, and the collapse of the church's intellectual credibility. Despite living his life when most of Europe was still agricultural and artisanal; most European states were still dominated by monarchical power; and most Europeans still went to church, Marx understood industrial labor and some of its future effects. Marx depicts modernization as a capitalist society working as a system, in which each group or individual works to fulfill the need of another. As soon as an individual enters a capitalist society, he is socialized into a certain role or behavior which fulfills the needs of that society (role meaning either a proletariat or a capitalist). For instance, if an individual is a proletariat he must work for a capitalist to satisfy the needs of the society. (cite communist manifesto somewhere). This division between the proletarians and the capitalists are enforced for the benefit of the owners so that they can exploit the working class for their own means, but the working class does not resist because this system has become normalized. The two classes work as a â€Å"team† and through a hierarchy create a productive society. Overall, Marx thinks of modernization as a world where individuals rely on each other to function, and each individual is assigned a role. Next, Emile Durkheim stressed that modernization involves an increased division of labor (specialized economic activity), and a shift from mechanical to organic solidarity. This academic discusses division of labor as a necessary tool for a productive society, but it is also a natural occurrence. Durkheim proceeds from the concept that the division is an organic outgrowth of a society in which different people have different interests and skills. Therefore, a society in which individuals specialize in producing a good or service will be more efficient than a society that is generalized. Durkheim’s view of modernization explains that iindividuals no longer perform the same tasks, have the same interests, nor necessarily share the same perspectives on life. But, Durkheim makes it clear that this does not cause a society to fail or disintegrate, instead organic solidarity is formed. Similar to the organs within a body, individuals perform certain specific functions, but rely on the well-being and successful performance of other individuals. If one organ fails, the rest of them fail as well. A body, or in this case a society, cannot function at all if one part crumbles. This reliance upon each other for social (and even physical) survival is the source of organic solidarity and the modern world’s interdependency in a society. Lastly, Max Weber analyzed modernization as the replacement of tradition with rationality. He felt that society will become more complicated, specialized, professionalized, and stratified in the modern world. Prayer and religion will no longer be aspects that fix and/or help solve problems. Science will be the rational way of thought and will be the dominate way of finding a solution. Specialization will result in professionalism, which in turn will bring more order to the modern world as every segment of every job will have a â€Å"specialist†. In general, modernization to Weber meant society will be controlled by managers and experts, and rationality will dictate the way of life. Each of these theorists have strong opinions on modernization and developed what they believe will be the effects of it in the future. Between Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, various theoretical arguments have been made, each being extremely progressive thoughts for the time period they lived in. Karl Marx thinks modernization leads to both good and bad outcomes. One outcome modernization leads to is alienation. Marx believed that alienation is a systematic result of capitalism, in which both the capitalist and proletariat become isolated. This theory is based upon his observation that, in emerging industrial production, under capitalism, workers inevitably lose control of their lives and selves in not having any control of their work. Thus, workers never become autonomous, self-realized human beings in any significant sense. Karl Marx attributes four types of alienation in labor under capitalism. The first type is when the worker becomes alienated from his own human potential. The workplace is no longer a place of fulfillment, but instead where the worker feels the least human and the least like himself. Ultimately, the worker becomes a machine that is controlled. The next type of alienation occurs between workers. This happens because capitalism reduces labor to a commodity to be traded on the market, rather than a true social relationship. Even if a worker is side by side another worker, he is unlikely to communicate with him due to the nature of capitalism (e. . an assembly line using technology does not allow one to speak with a fellow worker). Thirdly, the worker becomes alienated from the product itself. This occurs because the capitalist class controls the worker and in turn owns the product. In fact, a worker must buy the product he makes for the same price as anyone else. Lastly, a worker becomes alienated from the entire production process. This means that the actua l work becomes mindless, meaningless, and more than likely offers little or no intrinsic satisfactions. Similarly, a worker who performs a very specialized task may not even know what the final product will be. Another outcome Marx believes modernization leads to is social stratification. Social stratification means that working class people are not likely to advance socioeconomically, while the wealthy people may continue to exploit the proletariat generation after generation. Marx identified that the social classes are stratified based on their connection to the means of production and therefore the ruling class, bourgeoisie, and proletarians, maintain their social positions by maintaining their elationship with the means of production. This maintenance of status quo is achieved by various methods of social control employed by the bourgeoisie within many aspects of social life (e. g. religion). Marx also strongly believed modernization would cause products and/or commodities to have exchange value. This meant that instead of products being used immediately, they would be exchanged in the market for money or other objects. This use value is connected to the relationship between human needs and tangible objects that can satisfy those needs. For instance, shoes have the purpose of protecting ones feet and bread has the use value of satisfying hunger. If an individual chooses to trade one of these objects for the other than he has given each an exchange value. According to Marx, the various exchange values of commodities reflect the various amounts of labor, measured in time, that their production requires. Commodities and their use value lead to Marx’s idea on the â€Å"fetishism of commodities. † This is when the commodity takes on its own form. This can be something an individual produces or even one’s own labor. One’s own labor can even become a commodity, as it bought and sold and therefore requires an exchange value. This idea also relates to alienation mentioned above. A workers labor is used by the capitalist to make the objects that ultimately come to dominate the workers. Hence, commodities are the source of alienation because workers produce for the sake of others instead of for their own purposes and needs. Similarly, the fetishism of commodities can be interpreted into the concept of reification. Reification is the process of coming to believe that humanly created social forms are natural, universal, and absolute things. This implies that people believe that social structures are beyond their control and unchangeable. Marx believed capitalism would cause reification to occur and create a self-fulfilling prophecy in which structures actually do become the character others believe they are. This concept demonstrates that capitalism will not only lead to objects given value, but people as well. Marx also feels that modernization leads to wants becoming needs, and needs reating more needs. In other words, the satisfaction of one’s needs can lead to the creation of new needs. Ritzers example for this is how the production of cars satisfied the need for long-distance travel, but led to a new need for highways. Also, at one time people did not feel they needed cars when the car was first invented, but nowadays most people feel they need them. Therefore, Marx concluded that la bor occurs in response to needs, but the labor itself transforms needs, which can lead to new forms of productive activity. One final thought Karl Marx thought capitalism would create was a proletariat revolution. Because the capitalist exploit the workers, Marx believed that sooner or later the proletarians would fight back. As capitalism progresses more and more people become workers, and less people become capitalists. Marx thought that with increasing numbers of workers, more resistance to exploitation and oppression would occur, ultimately leading to a confrontation and revolution. Despite these thoughts, Marx felt that capitalism was a step in the right direction. The birth of capitalism opened up new possibilities for freedom of workers and provides possibility for freedom from the traditions from previous societies (pre capitalism). Though, Marx was an advocate of Communism and believed this was the answer to a change in mode of production. Next, Emile Durkheim has theories on the effects of modernization as well. First, Durkheim believes modernization leads to dynamic density. Over time, societies go through a transition from being more primitive/mechanical, to being more modern/organic; the difference lying in the source of their solidarity, or what holds them together (Ritzer, 2007). The cause of this transition is an increase in dynamic density. One may think the solution to this problem is to have a growing or increasing population, but this is not sufficient enough to create change in the division of labor. The reason for this is that individuals and small groups of people can live in relative isolation from one another and still perform most of the tasks necessary for survival themselves, no matter how big the overall population gets (Ritzer, 2007). Therefore, a growing population must also increase the frequency with which people interact within and between social groups. This increase in dynamic density is likely to cause a division of labor and the transformation of social solidarity. As mentioned above, Durkheim developed two terms: mechanical and organic solidarity. A society characterized by mechanical solidarity means a unified one in which every person is a generalist. This society is held together because each individual is engaged in a similar activity as the another, and can therefore relate with each other. Contrasting, organic solidarity is held together by the differences among people and the fact that each individual has a different job or task. Durkheim believed that modern society was one in which there are a narrow range of tasks and many people must work in order to survive. Therefore, modern society is held together by the specialization of people and their need for the services of many others. Unfortunately, according to Durkheim, this means that modern societies have weaker shared understandings, norms, and beliefs than primitive ones, but are more likely to be cohesive from the division of labor. Along with dynamic density, Durkheim was concerned about the moral â€Å"health†of modern society. He felt that morality was connected with society and therefore society could not be immoral, but it could possibly lose its moral force if the collective interest of society became nothing but self-interests of individuals. Durkheim also felt that people were in risk of a â€Å"pathological† loosening of moral bonds (Ritzer, 2007). Without this, people would be in search of more and more gratification, leading to more and more needs. Every human being will want more and society will start to not limit these needs. Durkheim called this the â€Å"insatiable desire† that modernization would endure. In summary, Durkheim debates in The Division of Labor that moral solidarity has changed in modern society and that modern society allows for more interdependence and closer, less competitive relations. Lastly, Max Weber thinks modernization leads to a variety of outcomes. The first outcome of modernization is bureaucracy.

Links Between Ancient Empire (Songhai, Ming and Mughul) Essay

| Ming China| Songhai| Mughal India| Government and Society| * Absolute rulers * Government followed out all emperor’s orders * Emperor seen as god| * Peace patrolling by navy * Surrounding chiefs kept more of their power if they paid tributes * Based on Islamic Principals. * Performance based NOT birth * Based on military and religion * Slaves did all manual labour| * Based on Islamic principals * Local rulers kept power but had to pay tributes * Centralised administration * Efficient bureaucracy * Practiced religious tolerance | Role of Women| * Good education to teach their sons * Got married – family finance * Thrice following (followed whatever they were told by men) * Only influential if wealthy| * Men didn’t talk to women in public * Respected by men but had to act shy and timid * Separate housing between men and women. | * No education, liberty or rights * If they gave birth to a female they were shunned upon * Not allowed to go anywhere without permission * Women were seen as inferior| Travel and Trade| * Traded silk, porcelain and tea * Trade to show off China’s wealth and power * Traded with West Asia and Europe along the silk route * Brought goods back from exotic places visited | * Gold and salt trade * Huge caravans regularly crossed the Sahara desert. * Timbuktu and Goa became large commercial centres of these routes| * Export of agricultural products * Shipbuilding – key industry (Europeans bought from them) * Private trading – voyagers to East Africa, Europe etc†¦ * China was an important trading partner.| Links/Contacts with the rest of the world| * Zheng He voyagers – linked China to India, Ar abian Peninsula and East Africa. * Trade connected them to Asia and Europe – silk road along Med. Sea * Communication routes created via military courier system| * Trade in gold and salt along Sahara desert linked them to the Arabs and Europe through gold trade * Arab traders were the link from Africa to the rest of the world. * Commercial centres were a place for merchants from Med. And Europe to trade. * Exploration of Portuguese| * Contacts with China and South East Asia * Europeans ships visited India and they bought from the Indians * The British set up BEIC to trade| Learning and culture| * Education was wide spread. * Standardised education * Stand was high because they could print text books at the time * Different pantheons of Gods * Practised Buddhism and  Taoism | * Timbuktu and Goa – main centres of learning * Recruited teachers from over-seas * Islam – dominant culture * Recorded as one of the largest Islamic in history| * Established libraries in different languages * Welcomed scholars to his courts * Islamic * Practised religious cultures| Technology| * Inventors of gun powder * Compass * Paper * Printing| * Mosque Architecture – detailed and big * Took years to build| * Invented concept of zero * Modern math * Celestial globe * Advanced architecture | Decline of the Empires| * Invaded by the Moroccan army * This was possible because modern weaponry – Songhai didn’t stand a chance even though they had more men * Succession battles between Mohammed Askia I’s sons in 1593 led to civil war * Lost total control of trade and wealth due to Portuguese explorations around West Africa. | * Threats of invasion by Mongols and Machu * Weakened by power struggles * Became isolated because of the Great Wall of China * Sever famine * Economic problems – people stopped paying taxes | * Main threat – BEIC * Wars of succession weakened empire after Akbar’s death. * |